Massage has been used in most cultures since early civilization and has had a long tradition of use in sport (Stamford 1985). Throughout the years, its profile has increasingly grown and its use in sport at the highest level is now well established (Hemmings, 2001), and although many researchers have provided contradictory evidence with regards to sports massage directly affecting performance, it is surely the athletes’ perception that matters.

After all, ‘successful forms of treatment often run ahead of the precise knowledge of the premises from which they arise’. (Pemberton,1950)

Frequent claims are made in the sports literature regarding the benefits of massage which include improved stretching of tendons and connective tissues (Samples 1987), relief of muscle tension and spasm (Ryan, 1980), and elimination of waste products following training (Birukov 1987).

Massage is also assumed to enhance muscle recovery from intense exercise, principally due to its ability to speed blood flow, and although studies like Catarelli and Flint (1993), point out that reports on limb blood flow vary from little effect of massage to as much as 50% increase in blood flow, to Dubrovosky (1990), who showed that massage promoted acceleration of muscle and venus blood flow increased blood volume and reduced muscle tightness.

Other researchers such as Tidus and Shoemaker (1995) regard studies such as these to be plagued with methodological problems associated with techniques used to determine blood flow.

A great deal of evidence exists which suggests that accumulated lactate, is partially responsible for slowing recovery from fatigue (Gupta et al. 1996, MacClaren et al. 1989, Maughan et al. 1997). While the majority of lactate accumulated during exercise is removed by direct oxidation and through conversion into glycogen (Hemmings, 2001), there has been considerable research to discover if oxidation can be enhanced through various methods of recovery. Since it has been proposed that massage could increase blood flow to the muscles being massaged, and blood flow is suggested to be an important factor in the removal of lactate following exercise through enhanced oxidation and diffusion out of the muscles (Dodd et al. 1984), studies have sought to determine whether massage has any effect on lactate removal following exercise.

Bale and James (1991), found that post-exercise blood lactate levels were shown to be significantly lower following a massage compared with a passive rest. Additionally, Dolgener and Morien (1993) and Martin et al. (1998) demonstrated superior lactate disappearance in 40% V02 max massage recovery compared to passive recovery, following short-term intense exercise. However, Wilmore and Costills (1994) findings further suggest that an active warm down combined with massage may be more efficient at removing lactate in the recovery phase following exercise.

Delayed onset of muscle soreness is a painful condition that occurs as the athletes engage in a sudden increase in intensity within their training.

The soreness and stiffness experienced by the athlete often begins within 24 hours post-exercise and peaks between 48 – 72 hours post-exercise, with any one of 5 factors being the cause:

• Minute tears in the muscle tissue itself or damage to its contractile components,
• Osmotic pressure changes, that cause retention of fluids in the surrounding tissues,
• Muscle spasms,
• Overstretching
• Acute inflammation
• A combination of the above factors. (McArdle 1996)

Although the precise cause of muscle damage is unknown, the degree of discomfort depends to a large extent on the intensity and duration of effort and the type of exercise performed. It is not the absolute force per se, but rather the magnitude of strain imposed on a muscle fiber that precipitates muscle damage and resulting soreness.

Decreased range of motion and a reduction in muscle force output by as much as 50% has been reported with DOMS (Cleak et al, 1992. Davies et al, 1981. Newham et al, 1987). Furthermore, muscular deficits may take up to 2 weeks for maximal recovery (cleak et al, 1992).

A vast amount of research has been conducted to determine the best methods of reducing DOMS. Methods ranging from Cyrotherapy (Easton et al, 1999), and pulsed ultrasound (Craig et al 1990) to, Transcutaneous Electrical Neuromuscular Stimulation (Denegar et al, 1992), but they all show no evidence of reducing DOMS, however, Earnst (1998) stated that there was evidence to suggest massage could alleviate symptoms of DOMS. Indeed positive effects were also cited by Balke et al (1989), who showed that mechanical and manual massage aid recuperation from exercise fatigue more effectively than rest alone. While Smith et al (1994) also reports sports massage, as an effective method of reducing DOMS post exercise. Bale and James (1991) also reported a positive effect of massage on muscle soreness post exercise compared to rest and warm down conditions.

Every athlete experiences body fatigue and brain fatigue. Sports massage helps restore the athlete back to an optimum level of physical and mental readiness. The psychological benefits of sports massage have been frequently reported for many years. For instance, Weinberg et al, (1988) found a positive relationship between massage and mood state in physical education students. Likewise, Leivadi et at, (1999) found dance students experienced less anxiety and a more positive mood state following massage therapy. A series of recent studies also support the use of massage for psychological regeneration, for example, Hemmings, (2000a) showed how massage improved mood state in amateur boxers who were undergoing intensive training, while another similar study by Hemmings, (2000b) showed how massage improved perceived recovery and performance.

Other frequently reported benefits toward athletes were, enhanced emotional well being, calmness, improved mood, relaxation, and reduced anxiety. As well as athletes reporting a heightened sense of awareness, confidence and a mental readiness to compete. (Hemmings 2001)

Although all of the above traits are important, confidence is stated to be the most intriguing topics within sports psychology (Singer et al 2001).
Sports confidence as seen in Vealey, (1986) Is, ‘the belief or degree of certainty individuals possess about their abilities to be successful in sport.’ And after achieving peak performances, athletes often experience a strong, almost ‘shatterproof’ sense of confidence, that they believe allowed them to perform their best (Singer et al, 2001). However, Singer, (2001) also states that two of the most dreaded psycho-behavioural occurrences in sport are; chocking under pressure and sudden performance slumps, these are often attributed to, over-arousal, excess anxiety and ‘loosing ones confidence’.

If the athlete is over-aroused or highly anxious, pre-event massage can control these factors and regulate them, allowing the athlete to feel mentally and physically prepared.

The ability to concentrate effectively is also stated to be the mental key to successful performance in sport (Moran 1996). Likewise, Abernethy, (1993) observed that it is difficult to imagine anything more important to the performance than, ‘paying attention to the task at hand’. Similarly, Summers et al, (1991) suggest that the attention factors such as, ‘sustained alertness and freedom from distraction’, are vital ingredients of athletic performance.

Once again these key factors can be enhanced via pre-event sports massage. The treatment time allows the athlete and therapist to focus on the sport or event in hand, and hone in on their tasks and abilities.